There are four types of human character: One who says: “what is mine is mine, and what is yours is yours” is an average person; and some say this is a Sodom-type of character. One who says: “what is mine is yours and what is yours is mine,” is an am ha’aretz; One who says, “what is mine is yours and what is yours is yours” is a pious person. One who says, “what is mine is mine, and what is yours is mine” is a wicked person.
This is the first of six Mishnayot that describe a series of four types of people. Subsequent examples include individual differences as they relate to moral and intellectual traits such as anger and memory. The overall structure of these Mishnayot follows a pattern of analyzing two variables and distributing them into the equivalent of a 2x2 matrix. The first two combinations yield a mixed personality with one pro and one con. The next category is the best combination of both variables, leading to the best outcome. The final kind is the worst of both variables, creating the least favorable option.
This Mishna describes four types of people as they relate to material possessions. How people interact and react around their property is a true litmus test of psychological, spiritual, and moral character. Additionally, as Rabbi Moshe Almosnino points out, this discussion has broader societal implications, influencing the economic and social fabric of the collective.
The two variables discussed are (1) how one relates to one’s own property, and (2) how one relates to other peoples’ property. The resulting four categories can be described as boundaried, boundless, altruistic, and greedy.
Boundaried
One who says: “what is mine is mine, and what is yours is yours” is an average person; and some say this is a Sodom-type of character
This first personality type has clear boundaries when it comes to sharing possessions. The two opinions differ as to how to judge such a character. Some assume it is morally neutral behavior. Others say it is emblematic of the morally corrupt people of Sodom. How can there be such a disparity in how this personality trait is judged?
The literature on “psychological ownership” provides a useful framework to elucidate this Mishna. As described by Jon Pierce and colleagues, psychological ownership is a state of mind in which an individual feels “as though the target of ownership (material or immaterial in nature)…is ‘theirs’ (i.e. ‘It is MINE’).” There is a sense of possessiveness and psychological connection to the object, often as an extension of the self. The object “becomes part of the psychological owner’s identity.”
While a sense of psychological ownership has potential benefits – it can lead to an increased sense of identity, a sense of agency and responsibility, higher self-esteem, and has even been linked to giving behavior and stewardship (Jamie et al. 2021) - it can also lead to a sense of materialism, territoriality, and selfishness. Herein lies the ambivalence in this Mishna. Having possessions, creating boundaries, and respecting others’ possessions has potential value but also a price. As Rabbi Dr. Reuven Bulka writes, this approach “Can create a syndrome of insensitivity, of non-communication, of non-concern, which eventually leads to hardness, callousness, and total disregard of the other individual, even producing the inability to help – and eventually the desire to harm.” The cost of not giving to others according to Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch would be too large for the individual and for society at large, “because it would expunge from the human heart and mind the guiding principle of loving kindness, without which man would lose his Divinely given nobility, and human society would be deprived of the goal ordained for it as its destiny.”
Boundless
One who says: “what is mine is yours and what is yours is mine,” is an unlearned person (am ha’aretz)
The second category is someone who is boundless, he or she shares indiscriminately and takes from others at will. The concept of personal possessions is blurred. This type of person is deemed an “am ha-aretz.” Commentaries differ as to how to explain this term and subsequently approach the pros and cons of such a personality type differently. Am ha-aretz is literally translated as “people of the land.” It is often, but not always, used as a pejorative to indicate unlearnedness or unrefined character. However, it could also refer to the common practices of the masses, without an inherently negative tinge.
The latter approach seems to be the majority view. There is a positive outcome of such a reciprocal sense of sharing. It can create friendships and a communal sense of empathy and caring. Yet following the structure of the Mishna, it is still not the idealized type. There is a potential downside to such a system. Meiri points to the possibility that the desire for other peoples’ goods, even if one is willing to share one’s own, reflects a lack of satisfaction with one’s own portion, and can engender envy and jealousy. Additionally, Rabbi Samuel de Uceda astutely points out that while one can be assured of one’s own commitment to sharing, one never fully knows the other person’s mindset. How can I say with confidence about another’s possessions that they should be mine? Perhaps the other person does not feel as comfortable sharing as the communal norms may impose.
Altruistic
One who says, “what is mine is yours and what is yours is yours” is a pious person.
The third type of person shares freely of what is his but does not take from others. This is deemed a pious personality. This models the right mindset towards one’s own possessions. This includes not being overly materialistic or invested in one’s own possessions, acknowledging all is from G-d, and one has everything one needs. This is combined with a magnanimous and altruistic personality who wants to provide for others. To selflessly give to others without demanding or expecting anything in return, assuming one is not getting unhealthily taken advantage of, is of high moral and religious value.
Greedy
One who says, “what is mine is mine, and what is yours is mine” is a wicked person.
Finally, the wicked person is one who takes from others without sharing his own possessions. His desire to take from others reflects dispositional greed, and his lack of sharing with others indicates intense selfishness. Together they combine for a narcissistic personality. Marcel Zeelenberg and Seger Breugelmans review the psychological literature on greed, noting that greed is not just morally problematic in that greedy people are more dishonest, immoral, unethical, and give less to others, but it is also psychologically damaging to the self. Greedy people tend to be more emotionally unstable, have lower self-esteem, worse relationships, and have less satisfaction with life and overall well-being.
Conclusion
Rabbi Berel Wein points out that the opening line of the Mishna can be read not only as “there are four types of people,” but as “there are four inclinations of character within people.” Each one of us is sufficiently complex and inconsistent that each one of these traits can be found within us at different times. Despite the fact that the Mishna is descriptive and does not contain an explicit directive, the implicit message is that these traits are changeable, and we should strive towards being primarily pious. One simple behavioral strategy towards this personality change, suggests Rabbi Yosef Yavetz, is to choose to consistently provide for others. By consciously creating a habit of giving, we can cultivate the prized altruistic personality.
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